For the past four years, DARPA has been developing its Air Combat Evolution (ACE) program, which seeks to team human pilots with AI and machine-learning systems in dogfighting scenarios. According to the agency, the initiative reached new heights in September with the first AI-versus-human dogfight conducted with actual aircraft.

During the test campaign, the agency says, the AI made no violations of training rules codifying airmen’s safety and ethical norms. In other words, it flew just as safely as a human pilot.

DARPA called the achievement “a fundamental paradigm shift,” similar to the inception of AI computers that can defeat human opponents in a game of chess. Chinese military researchers reportedly achieved a similar feat in March 2023, with one aircraft operated by AI and another controlled by a human on the ground.

Researchers also “pioneered new methods to train and test AI agent compliance with safety requirements, including flight envelope protection and aerial/ground collision avoidance, as well as with ethical requirements including combat training rules, weapons engagement zones, and clear avenues of fire,” the agency said.

This is significant because, according to DARPA, previous integrations of autonomy on crewed commercial and military aircraft have used heuristic or rules-based systems, which are designed for situations that are predictable or repeatable. More complex scenarios such as dogfighting are impractical for such a model because there are simply too many possibilities for which designers must account.

Machine-learning AI models are less predictable and explainable than rules-based models. But they are excellent for analyzing complex scenarios on the fly.

DARPA views AI dogfighting as “a means to an end,” in the sense that it intends for its findings to be applied to AI integration on military aircraft more broadly. Another goal is to foster trust in pilots toward machines. The idea is that if autonomy can operate in a scenario as dangerous as close-quarters combat, humans can trust it to work in less dangerous—but equally complex—situations.

“What is the most efficient and effective path to optimize the performance and safety of artificial intelligence in aerospace vehicles?” is the question the agency poses.

To evaluate AI for dogfighting, engineers developed the X-62A, a modified F-16 test aircraft also known as the Variable In-flight Simulator Test Aircraft (VISTA). Uniquely, VISTA is capable of simulating the conditions of other aircraft while flying.

“Think of a simulator laboratory that you would have at a research facility,” said Bill Gray, chief test pilot at the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base (KEDW) in California. “We have taken that entire simulator laboratory and crammed it into an F-16, and that is VISTA.”

Personnel began in 2020 by testing AI systems in a simulated environment using computers, progressing over the course of 21 test flights to actual flight controlled by ACE algorithms. Two human pilots remained in the cockpit for safety purposes.

The AI was retrained on a daily basis—engineers updated flight control laws overnight and reprogrammed the aircraft to fly the following morning. More than 100,000 lines of software changes were made over the course of testing.

The first dogfight between a crewed F-16 and ACE-controlled VISTA took place in September. The self-flying aircraft performed both defensive and offensive maneuvers, getting as close as 2,000 feet to the crewed aircraft at 1,200 mph.

All autonomous demonstrations took place at the Air Force Test Pilot School, where DARPA says they are continuing in 2024. The hope is that the results can be repeated during future testing of other scenarios. And researchers believe they could.

“Every lesson we’re learning applies to every task we could give to an autonomous system,” said Gray.

Like DARPA, the Air Force is committed to exploring autonomous flight systems. In addition to participating in ACE, the department is developing such technologies through AFWERX, its innovation arm. Last week, Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall told U.S. lawmakers that he would get in the cockpit of a self-flying plane—which the Air Force on Wednesday confirmed to be VISTA—in the near future.

“The potential for autonomous air-to-air combat has been imaginable for decades, but the reality has remained a distant dream up until now,” said Kendall. “In 2023, the X-62A broke one of the most significant barriers in combat aviation. This is a transformational moment, all made possible by breakthrough accomplishments of the X-62A ACE team.”

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Joby Aviation, a manufacturer of eVTOL air taxis that it expects to begin operating in 2025, on Tuesday committed to deliver two aircraft to MacDill Air Force Base (KMCF) in Tampa, Florida, to be used for Air Force training and testing. The agreement is an expansion of the company’s $131 million contract with AFWERX, the innovation arm of the Air Force, which calls for the delivery of nine aircraft.

In total, Joby’s completed and current work with the U.S. Department of Defense represents a contract value of $163 million: a figure the firm claims is the largest in the eVTOL industry. Competitors Archer Aviation and Beta Technologies, among others, also own contracts with AFWERX.

MacDill Air Force Base is home to the U.S. Special Operations Command, U.S. Central Command, and several Air Mobility Command and logistics-focused units within the military. Air Force personnel will test and train with Joby’s aircraft on the base and in the surrounding area.

“The early investment and vision by the U.S. government in this critical technology is proving foundational as we continue our path toward commercial passenger service,” said JoeBen Bevirt, founder and CEO of Joby. “This work will provide Joby with valuable early operational experience, while providing the U.S. Air Force with firsthand understanding of the performance of our aircraft and its potential applications.”

Joby’s electric air taxi is designed to carry a pilot and up to four passengers, with a range of about 100 sm (87 nm) and cruise speed of 200 mph (174 knots). It produces zero operating emissions and a fraction of the noise of helicopters, according to the manufacturer.

Through AFWERX, the Air Force is able to experiment with aircraft such as Joby’s without spending billions on development and production. The manufacturers of those vehicles, meanwhile, receive a funding boost and take to the skies before obtaining FAA type certification. These early flights may provide critical data points to inform Joby as it refines its design, particularly when it comes to the experience of pilots.

“The Agility Prime team is very excited to progress through a novel acquisition approach,” said Lieutenant Colonel John Tekell, branch chief of Agility Prime, a division within AFWERX focused on vertical lift technologies. “These two aircraft at MacDill AFB allow the program to take the next steps in learning to maximize the operational opportunity of eVTOLs.”

For the first time, Joby at MacDill will work directly with DOD operational units. Personnel will use the aircraft to conduct logistics missions and test use cases in personnel transport, casualty evacuation, and support of security forces.

Joby in September delivered the first of nine eVTOL air taxis to the Air Force ahead of schedule, shipping it to Edwards Air Force Base in California. With one additional aircraft expected to be delivered to Edwards this year and two scheduled to be shipped to MacDill, the company has now committed a total of four aircraft to the department.

Air Force experimentation at Edwards is expected to inform the future test campaign at MacDill. In addition, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Army aviators, ground crews, and program managers have visited Joby’s flight test facility in Marina, California, for ongoing flight training. 

Personnel are further exploring potential logistics, medical, and personnel transport applications for the aircraft. According to Joby, initial evaluations have proven the model’s high speed, low noise, and minimal maintenance and operating costs make it suitable for a wide variety of use cases.

Continued evaluations and pilot training will allow Joby’s air taxi to log critical flight hours before it enters commercial service, accelerating its development and, in theory, improving safety.

Recently, the manufacturer completed a key step toward that commercial rollout. The FAA in February approved Joby’s certification plans for various aircraft components such as structural, mechanical, and electrical systems, part of the company’s type certification process. The next phase involves submitting a curriculum to be used in for-credit FAA evaluations of the aircraft, which will most likely happen at the end of this year or the start of next.

If Joby can pass that test, it will move to the final steps. Type certification could follow soon after.

Joby is not the only eVTOL manufacturer relying on AFWERX to give it a lift throughout the process.

Competitor Archer, for example, has its own $142 million contract with AFWERX, under which it expects to deliver up to six aircraft to an Air Force base yet to be determined. Both Archer and Joby received $1 million in early payments from the department last year, representing each company’s first revenue.

Another competitor, Beta, in January wrapped up its first electric aircraft deployment for the Air Force at Eglin Air Force Base’s Duke Field (KEGI) in Florida.

In addition to working with private firms, AFWERX is collaborating with the FAA to share eVTOL testing capabilities and data. Another partnership with NASA aims to develop a nationwide digital operations center for air taxi services, which would help manage eVTOL traffic.

The interplay between manufacturers and these government partners will be interesting to watch as the FAA steers the U.S. toward the goals outlined in its Innovate28 blueprint. The document, while holding no legal standing, outlines the agency’s approach to air taxi services in the short term, culminating in scaled operations in time for the 2028 Olympic Games in Los Angeles.

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Beta on Monday announced that it concluded its first deployment with the DOD at Eglin Air Force Base’s Duke Field (KEGI) in Florida. The three-month campaign involved Beta’s electric Alia CTOL, a mobile flight simulator, and the company’s built-in-house charging system.

U.S. Air Force pilots took Alia out for on-base and cross-country missions, completing performance evaluations and pilot and maintenance assessments. They also conducted experimental operations and training with the 413th Flight Test Squadron, an Air Force unit stationed at Robins Air Force Base in Georgia.

The deployment was part of the Agility Prime program, the vertical lift division of the Air Force’s innovation arm, AFWERX. Beta and AFWERX’s relationship dates back to 2020, when the Air Force unit first contracted the manufacturer. 

According to Beta, the three-month campaign is the next phase of a larger Air Force developmental test and evaluation (DT&E) effort to gauge the fit of electric aircraft for DOD missions. These could include critical resupply, cargo delivery, and personnel transport, use cases that mirror real-life operations the Air Force has planned.

The Alia CTOL arrived at Duke Field in October after flying 1,500 nm down the East Coast. During the flight, it traveled through Class B airspace in Boston and New York City. Alia also became the first electric aircraft to fly through Washington, D.C.’s flight restricted zone, en route to a stop at Joint Base Andrews.

In addition to flying Alia, Air Force pilots used Beta’s MobileDome simulator to rehearse flights, practice emergency procedures, and obtain feedback from DOD subject matter experts. Last year, the manufacturer installed a Level 3 DC fast-charger—the first electric aircraft charging station at a DOD site—to juice up Alia between test flights.

Major Milestones

Together, Beta and the 413th Flight Test Squadron assessed Alia’s flight operations, maintenance support, and ability to identify infrared signatures, among other tasks. The missions out of Duke Field ranged from short sorties to extended flights, averaging $15 per flight in energy costs.

One key achievement was the first simulated casualty evacuation with an electric aircraft. The experiment demonstrated how Alia could improve response times at forward operating bases (FOBs) in foreign territory. A Lockheed Martin HH-60W rescue helicopter carried a simulated casualty halfway to medical care, but Alia finished the mission, relieving the helicopter and its crew earlier than currently feasible.

The exercise also showed how electric aircraft can reduce evacuation resource requirements. For a sample trip, a Lockheed C-130 Hercules would require a crew of at least three and expend about $1,600 in fuel. But Alia could complete the same mission with a two-person crew and an energy cost of just $5 in electricity.

Alia also completed a Maintenance Recovery Team (MRT) mission, flying to a nearby Air Force base to collect parts, then back to Duke to service a simulated aircraft. The aircraft flew a distance normally relegated to driving, which the DOD said could open cost and workforce savings.

For example, the cost estimate for a maintenance response of a home-unit based Alia, covering two flight legs, is about $25 worth of electricity and an hour of flight time. A standard Ford F-250 pickup covering the same geographical distance would spend about $45 on fuel and drive for four hours.

Those faster response times could enable same-day maintenance and reduced aircraft downtime. The latter could in turn eliminate unexpected DOD lodging costs or the cost of transport to recover fixed aircraft.

While Air Force pilots whizzed around the sky conducting experiments, Beta pilots flew Alia from Duke Field to Valdosta, Georgia, where the company commissioned a new charger at Valdosta Regional Airport (KVLD).

A Key Partnership

Since collaborating with AFWERX in 2020, Beta has gone on to achieve several electric aviation firsts with the Air Force’s help.

In 2021, it became the first electric aircraft manufacturer to receive airworthiness approval from the military for crewed flight. The following year, it conducted the industry’s first and only airman flight with test pilots from the Air Force and Army. Also in 2022, Alia completed a groundbreaking eight-leg, 1,219 nm cross-country flight spanning six states.

Those achievements may not have been possible without AFWERX’s help. Based on Beta’s comment that its recent deployment is only the “next phase” in a grander plan, the DOD may continue its relationship with the manufacturer. The department is also working with rival air taxi manufacturer Archer Aviation and several other developers of electric aircraft.

If all goes according to plan, Beta’s Alia CTOL will enter service in 2025, followed by an electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) variant in 2026. In October, the company opened a 188,500-square-foot production facility, where it will begin manufacturing when the time comes.

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The Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA), a U.S. Department of Defense unit tasked with developing cutting-edge defense technology, wants to do away with all of them.

DARPA this week selected Aurora Flight Sciences—a research subsidiary of Boeing specializing in the development of uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) and other novel aircraft systems—to build a full-scale demonstrator aircraft that can fly with no surface-level control surfaces.

The project is part of a DARPA program called CRANE, or Control of Revolutionary Aircraft with Novel Effectors. CRANE aims to design, build, and fly an airplane with active flow control (AFC)—in lieu of control surfaces—as a key design consideration. According to DARPA, AFC technology has been explored at the component level but not as a core piece of aircraft design.

Aurora has already begun building the outlandish demonstrator, called the X-65, DARPA said Wednesday. The agency expects it to roll out in early 2025, with the first flight planned for that summer.

No Control Surfaces, No Problem

The smooth-bodied X-65’s wings look almost like mirrored Dyson fans, with large gaps separating them from the body. In fact, the aircraft uses AFC to generate force in a similar way.

For primary flight control, flaps and rudders are replaced by AFC actuators. Much like a Dyson fan, AFC technology produces jets of pressured air, shaping flows over the airplane’s surface. Effectors spread across the surface use those flows to control pitch, roll, and yaw.

“[The X-65’s] distinctive, diamond-like wing shape is designed to help us maximize what we can learn about AFC in full-scale, real-world tests,” said Dr. Richard Wlezien, program manager for CRANE.

DARPA expects the elimination of external moving parts to reduce aircraft weight and complexity, thereby improving performance. In addition, the tech could enable drag reduction, high angle-of-attack flight, simplified high-lift systems, and thicker wings for better structural stability and fuel capacity, the agency said.

The X-65 will be built initially with two sets of control actuators—traditional flaps and rudders—as well as AFC effectors on all lifting surfaces. In addition to minimizing risk in early flight testing, the control surfaces will serve as a baseline for testing. As the campaign progresses, they will be selectively shut down and replaced by AFC for primary flight control.

“The X-65 conventional surfaces are like training wheels to help us understand how AFC can be used in place of traditional flaps and rudders,” explained Wlezien. “We’ll have sensors in place to monitor how the AFC effectors’ performance compares with traditional control mechanisms, and these data will help us better understand how AFC could revolutionize both military and commercial craft in the future.”

The uncrewed X-65 will have a 30-foot wingspan and is projected to weigh more than 7,000 pounds, capable of reaching Mach 0.7 speed (about 537 mph). Its size, speed, and weight will be similar to military trainer aircraft—which means DARPA could uncover immediate AFC applications for real-world designs.

X-Planes, CRANEs, and Aurora Deals

Construction of the X-65 demonstrator represents Phase 3 of CRANE, the U.S. government’s latest X-plane project.

X-planes are a series of experimental U.S. aircraft and rockets, used mainly to test out new technologies and aerodynamic concepts. The first batch was built by Bell Aircraft Corp. (known today as Bell Textron) in the 1940s and ’50s. Since then, Boeing, Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, Curtiss-Wright, and other manufacturers have produced X-plane designs. The most recent, designated X-66, is a transonic truss-braced wing design being developed by Boeing with support from NASA.

With CRANE, DARPA hopes to optimize AFC systems by using the X-65 to mature the technology and design processes. In addition, former CRANE program manager Dr. Alexander Walan in 2020 suggested the agency may create an AFC technology database, which could be used by future manufacturers to design safe, market-ready aircraft.

CRANE began in 2019, when DARPA requested industry participation in the initiative. For Phase 1, which focused on initial design and system requirements, contracts were handed out to Aurora, Lockheed, BAE Systems, and Georgia Tech Research Corp.

But by the time Phase 2 began in January 2023, only Aurora—which had successfully completed wind tunnel testing using a testbed aircraft equipped with AFC—was still under contract. DARPA has now picked up its option for Phase 3, which will explore how AFC can be incorporated on full-scale aircraft and be relied upon for controlled flight.

It’s unclear whether CRANE will continue beyond Phase 3, which is expected to last several years. However, the X-65 is being designed to outlast it.

“We’re building the X-65 as a modular platform—wing sections and the AFC effectors can easily be swapped out— to allow it to live on as a test asset for DARPA and other agencies, long after CRANE concludes,” said Wlezien.

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Long Beach, California-based Rocket Lab last month submitted an SEC filing detailing the agreement: a deal to design, manufacture, deliver, and operate 18 “space vehicles” worth up to $515 million. For whom, though, is a mystery—the firm did not detail the specific customer, the purpose of the deployments, or the technology being delivered. But there are a few clues.

Rocket Lab’s SEC filing, dated December 21, 2023, said the company signed an agreement with a “United States government customer” to produce the 18 vehicles. Launches under the contract are expected to begin in 2027, shortly after the first customer delivery. 

The deal calls for Rocket Lab to operate the vehicles through 2030, with an option to extend that to 2033. At minimum, the firm will rake in $489 million from the contract, with options and incentives for a further $26 million.

While it’s unclear which agency is purchasing the technology, signs point to the Space Development Agency (SDA), an organization within the U.S. Space Force.

SDA is buying up hundreds of low-cost, industry-procured satellites to deploy in low Earth orbit (LEO). These will create a satellite “constellation” capable of detecting mobile missile launchers, ships, and other threats in real time for U.S. military forces on the ground. The initiative is called the Proliferated Warfighting Space Architecture, or PWSA.

The project contains five tranches, or stages. One of these, Tranche 2, is projected to include 90 communications systems (called “Beta” satellites) comprising a Transport Layer, which will provide military connectivity on Earth beyond the line of sight. In August, SDA awarded a total of $1.5 billion to defense contractors Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman to build 72 satellites for that component, called Transport Layer Tranche 2 Beta.

That’s a lot of fancy terminology. But in short, SDA needs 18 more satellites to fill out the roster. Does that number sound familiar? Derek Tournear, director of the SDA, last month acknowledged the figure and hinted that the organization is closing in on a purchase.

“We are looking at putting another 18 [Beta] satellites on contract, and we are looking at a third vendor to do that,” Tournear said at a National Security Space Association event on December 7. “We should make that announcement shortly.”

Tournear’s comments are not confirmation that SDA is Rocket Lab’s mystery customer. But the launch provider certainly fits the bill of that “third vendor,” and a collaboration between the two may make a lot of sense.

A Good Fit?

Rocket Lab got its start solely as a launch provider but has since expanded with a Space Systems business, which produces satellite components such as radios and solar panels. In fact, that unit actually outperformed the company’s launch business in the third quarter, leading all segments with $46.3 million in revenue.

Given the shift in business focus, a partnership with SDA makes sense. 

The organization introduced the PWSA initiative in 2019, launching the first two batches of Tranche 0 satellites this year. A third and final wave is expected to join them soon. Meanwhile, the agency has poured billions into Tranche 1 contracts for Lockheed, Northrop, and York Space Systems, with the first Tranche 1 satellites slated for launch in September. As of October, it was in the source selection phase for another batch of Tranche 2 vehicles.

Tranche 2 Beta satellites will deploy ultra-high frequency and S-band radio frequencies, which are used by the military for voice and data transmission. In November, SDA successfully demonstrated communications between satellites and earthbound receivers through the vacuum of space, using the Tranche 0 spacecraft deployed earlier this year.

Like SDA, the U.S. Space Systems Command is also developing LEO satellite constellations, part of a push by the Space Force to acquire small satellites for applications such as missile warnings. In other words, there’s plenty of demand for what Rocket Lab is supplying.

In addition, Rocket Lab and SDA have a prior relationship. In 2022, the company formed a national security subsidiary to hone in on the U.S. defense and intelligence market. That year, it won two SDA contracts worth $14 million to build separation systems for 84 SDA satellites, built by Lockheed and a second undisclosed supplier.

Rocket Lab on the Rebound

Like Elon Musk’s SpaceX and Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin, Rocket Lab this year felt the wrath of the FAA after a September mishap. But with a massive contract now in hand, the company may be headed for a rebound.

The accident earlier this year, which destroyed a payload aboard the firm’s Electron rocket, may have something to do with the launch segment’s recent struggles compared to the Space Systems business. But with FAA authorization to resume flying and a return to action in December, the company’s flagship rocket is back—and, in fact, it had a record year.

Electron flew 10 times in 2023, besting the company’s record of nine flights the year before. That’s at the top of the list for any launch provider not named SpaceX—rival United Launch Alliance, for example, flew just three times. The two-stage rocket also made its first mission on U.S. soil and flew twice in the span of one week, setting a new high mark for turnaround time.

While Rocket Lab specializes in Electron missions out of spaceports in Virginia and New Zealand, the company also earned seven suborbital launch contracts this year: five from Leidos, one from the Department of Defense, and another from a confidential customer. 

In addition to Electron, Rocket Lab since 2019 has produced the Photon, a satellite bus that uses chemical propulsion to fly in LEO, mid Earth, geostationary, or lunar orbit, and even on planetary journeys. First launched in 2020, Photon can be configured for an array of uses from satellite constellations to hosted payloads, such as NASA’s 2022 Cislunar Autonomous Positioning System Technology Operations and Navigation Experiment (Capstone) mission. There are four in orbit.

The company is further developing the larger Neutron rocket, expected to debut in 2025. Earlier this year, it purchased $16.1 million in assets from the now-defunct Virgin Orbit, including a lease to one of the Richard Branson-owned company’s Long Beach facilities and key manufacturing infrastructure. 

In October, Rocket Lab opened an engine development center to produce the spacecraft’s new Archimedes engine. A few years ago, it also won a $24.35 million Space Force award to develop Neutron’s upper stage.

With all of that recent activity plus December’s massive contract, Rocket Lab will be hoping it can cling to the number two ranking among launch providers for the foreseeable future.

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Last week, the U.S. Space Force launched the seventh mission of the X-37B: a secretive spaceplane or orbital test vehicle (OTV) project intended to prepare the country for the next era of space travel.

Almost nothing is known about the Boeing-built spacecraft’s specific purpose, payload, or final destination. But we do know that the most recent launch had more juice than any other, perhaps enough to send X-37B into deep orbit—or even to the neighborhood of the moon.

“The technological advancements we’re driving on X-37B will benefit the broader space community, especially as we see increased interest in space sustainability,” said Michelle Parker, vice president of space mission systems for Boeing Defense, Space & Security. “We are pushing innovation and capability that will influence the next generation of spacecraft.”

The mission, known as USSF-52 or OTV-7, departed Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A last Thursday evening in Florida after a few weeks of delays because of weather and technical issues. SpaceX shut down its livestream of the launch at the request of the Space Force once X-37B reached orbit.

“My memories go back to the Gemini and Mercury programs,” said Frank Kendall, secretary of the U.S. Air Force. “This is an incredible event, and I think about the teamwork over all those decades that has led to what has been a revolutionary improvement in space travel capability. We have come so far, and it’s been teamwork by the government, the Air Force, and now the Space Force, which didn’t exist until a few years ago, NASA, industry teams, and so many others that all contributed to what we saw.”

For the first time, the reusable, self-flying spaceplane left the launchpad coupled to a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket—one of the most powerful launch vehicles in existence. The rocket’s three first-stage boosters are also reusable.

X-37B’s first five missions used Atlas V rockets made by United Launch Alliance, a joint venture between Boeing and Lockheed Martin, while the sixth flew on SpaceX’s Falcon 9 booster. Each trip was confined to below 1,200 miles in altitude. Falcon Heavy, meanwhile, can reach 22,000 miles, fueling speculation that X-37B’s seventh mission may go deeper than ever before. But the Space Force has not disclosed the spaceplane’s flight plan.

The X-37B project—a collaboration between the Space Force and U.S. Air Force’s Rapid Capabilities Office under the National Security Space Launch program, with support from Boeing—is shrouded in secrecy.

Speculation on X-37B’s purpose ranges from new spying and reconnaissance capabilities to a weapons delivery system, the latter of which the Pentagon has denied. According to a Space Force statement, USSF-52 specifically will test operations in new “orbital regimes” and explore the effects of radiation on NASA payloads. Seeds, for example, will be exposed to the bitterness of space, perhaps to understand how humans could sustain interplanetary bases.

“The X-37B government and Boeing teams have worked together to produce a more responsive, flexible, and adaptive experimentation platform,” said William Bailey, director of the Rapid Capabilities Office. “The work they’ve done to streamline processes and adapt evolving technologies will help our nation learn a tremendous amount about operating in and returning from a space environment.”

In addition, the orbital test vehicle will experiment with “future space domain awareness technology,” which the Space Force explained is designed to enable safe and secure space operations for government and commercial users alike.

What Do We Know?

U.S. agencies have largely kept the details of X-37B under wraps, but there are a few clues as to its intended use.

The spaceplane has been in development for decades. Originally, it was a NASA-led project. In 1999, the agency enlisted Boeing’s Phantom Works—the manufacturer’s prototyping arm responsible for such cutting-edge designs as the A160 Hummingbird—to build the ambitious concept.

According to Boeing’s website, the design is an advanced reentry spacecraft geared for operations in low Earth orbit, about 150 to 500 miles above the ground. It’s the first vehicle since NASA’s space shuttle capable of returning experiments to Earth for analysis, landing on the runway like an airplane. Its goal, Boeing says, is to explore reusable technology for “long-term space objectives.”

X-37B introduced a handful of technologies that had previously never been used in spaceflight. Its state-of-the-art avionics, for example, automate de-orbiting and landing, considered some of the trickier maneuvers to make. The spaceplane’s flight controls and brakes replace hydraulics with electromechanical actuation, while a lighter composite structure stands in for traditional aluminum. The design also includes a new generation of high-durability tiles.

Not everything is new, however. The mysterious spacecraft’s landing profile and lifting body architecture—a fixed-wing configuration wherein the body itself provides lift for subsonic, supersonic, or hypersonic flight or spacecraft reentry, à la Sierra Space’s Dream Chaser—resemble the space shuttle’s.

Yet X-37B is only one-fourth as large, about the size of a small bus. It’s also much harder to track than its predecessor, capable of quickly changing orbit or “hiding” in the glare of the sun to keep its position secret.

Since its maiden voyage in April 2010, the spaceplane has spent more than 3,750 days in space, traveling an astounding 1.3 billion miles. In 2019, it won the Robert J. Collier Trophy, awarded by the National Aeronautic Association for the greatest American aeronautical or astronomical achievements of the year prior.

Another Space Race?

With each voyage, X-37B has flown farther and for longer. But at the same time, a foreign superpower is ramping up its own mysterious, state-of-the-art spaceplane project.

Boeing’s model was initially designed for a mission duration of 270 days. But since OTV-2 in 2011, each test flight has been longer than the last. 

Its sixth and most recent mission, which touched down in November 2022, lasted a record 908 days. If that’s any indication, OTV-7 will fly even longer. The mission was also the first to introduce an expanded service module that allowed the spacecraft to host more experiments than ever before, including payloads from the Naval Research Lab and more seeds from NASA.

X-37B’s seventh mission could be its last, according to comments from General B. Chance Saltzman, chief of space operations for the Space Force, in 2020. That could be consequential given activity across the Pacific. 

Earlier in December, China launched its Shenlong “Divine Dragon” on its third mission since 2020 aboard a Long March 2F rocket, which is less powerful than SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy. There are no photos available of the secretive spacecraft, but it’s thought to be similar to the X-37.

Like its American counterpart, not much is known about Shenlong’s purpose. But a few weeks ago, it reportedly deployed six mysterious objects into orbit. Though the project is covert, U.S. officials are already drawing links between it and the Space Force initiative. The close timing of the two launches, in particular, has raised eyebrows—if not for delays, X-37B and Shenlong would have reached orbit within days of each other.

“It’s no surprise that the Chinese are extremely interested in our spaceplane,” Saltzman told Air & Space Forces Magazine last month. “We’re extremely interested in theirs. These are two of the most watched objects on orbit while they’re on orbit. It’s probably no coincidence that they’re trying to match us in timing and sequence of this.”

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On Friday, the Pentagon confirmed reports that forces from the U.S. Special Operations Command are flying unarmed surveillance drones over the Gaza Strip to assist in the recovery of hostages held by Hamas, of which there are thought to be around 240, including several Americans.

According to Air Force Brigadier General Pat Ryder, Pentagon press secretary, the unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been flying over Gaza since Hamas’ October 7 invasion of Israel.

“In support of hostage recovery efforts, the U.S. is conducting unarmed UAV flights over Gaza, as well as providing advice and assistance to support our Israeli partner as they work on their hostage recovery efforts,” said Ryder in a statement. “These UAV flights began after the October 7 attack by Hamas on Israel.”

According to a report by The New York Times, which first spotted the drones on publicly accessible flight-tracking website Flightradar24, the UAVs are remotely piloted MQ-9A extended range Reapers.

Amelia Smith, an open source intelligence and aviation researcher who has been tracking the MQ-9s for several days, told FLYING that by her estimate, a total of seven different aircraft are flying across the region, four of them per day. Typically, only one Reaper is in the air at any given moment. But the UAVs have loitered over Gaza at around 24,000 to 26,000 feet, sometimes for several hours at a time, Smith said.

The MQ-9 Reaper is considered the Air Force’s first “hunter-killer” UAV. It was initially designed as a highly precise and durable combat drone, with advanced sensors and cameras, robust communications, and the ability to loiter for more than 24 hours. Today, it is used primarily for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance operations.

Two unnamed Department of Defense (DOD) officials told the Times the Reaper deployments are thought to be the first time U.S. drones have flown missions over Gaza. The officials added that one goal of the flights is to pass potential leads on hostage positions along to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).

Previously, Pentagon officials had announced the U.S. delivery of precision-guided munitions, Air Force fighters, and air defense capabilities—such as interceptors for Israel’s Iron Dome counter-drone systems—to the IDF. But before Friday, they made no mention of MQ-9s.

In a Tuesday press briefing, however, Ryder mentioned that the DOD is “coordinating closely with the Israelis to help secure the release of the hostages held by Hamas, including American citizens.”

Added Ryder: “[Defense Secretary Lloyd] Austin highlighted that we immediately provided U.S. military advisors to offer best practices for integrating hostage recovery into Israel’s operations.”

Christopher Maier, an assistant secretary of defense, said earlier this week that U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF) are on the ground in Israel to assist with hostage recovery. Officials anonymously told the Times that several dozen commandos have been dispatched and are working with the FBI, the State Department, and other U.S. government hostage recovery specialists.

A senior Pentagon official told Spencer Ackerman, who runs the militarism-focused Substack blog “Forever Wars,” that SOF are preparing for “contingencies,” which may include the retrieval of hostages from Hamas. However, the official stressed that current deployments are non-combat missions aimed at training, consulting, and planning with the IDF, not recovering hostages.

Ackerman characterized direct special operations involvement in hostage retrieval as being in the “break-glass-in-case-of-absolute-emergency category.” For now, action is limited to surveillance with the MQ-9 Reaper drones and soft support for the IDF.

Meanwhile, Israel, which this week launched a ground offensive in Gaza City, reportedly plans to send drones into Gaza’s extensive tunnel network. According to recent reports and a firsthand account from an Israeli hostage who was released, these tunnels are where Hamas holds people after they’ve been captured.

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In what appears to be one of the largest-ever contracts for an eVTOL manufacturer, San Jose, California-based Archer Aviation agreed to deliver as many as six Midnight aircraft to the U.S. Air Force in an agreement worth up to $142 million. Other military branches will be able to leverage the contracts for additional projects, which could see that number rise.

“This historic agreement reflects the steadfast commitment by our armed forces to embrace the cutting-edge technology our eVTOL aircraft offer,” said Adam Goldstein, founder and CEO of Archer. “It’s clear that the development and commercialization of eVTOL technology continues to remain a national priority.”

AFWERX is the innovation arm of the Air Force, focused on uncovering defense applications for emerging aircraft while speeding their path to commercial launch. Since 2021, Archer has partnered with AFWERX’s Agility Prime—a subdivision dedicated wholly to vertical lift technologies—to explore defense cases for its eVTOL and accelerate entry into service.

Agility Prime plans to deploy Midnight for personnel transport, logistics support, rescue operations, and more. The agreement also calls for Archer to share flight test data and certification-related test reports, provide pilot training, and develop maintenance and repair operations.

 “eVTOL aircraft represent the cusp of the third revolution in aerospace, and these aircraft and their descendants will drive advances in capabilities and efficiency,” said Colonel Tom Meagher, the lead for AFWERX Agility Prime programs. “Our contracts with Archer Aviation provide the U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Air Force the opportunity to play a role in ensuring from the onset, and as the technology evolves, that we unlock the many benefits these aircraft have to offer the U.S. military.”

The Aircraft that Could Replace Helicopters

Archer recently completed the build of its first Midnight production aircraft, which it expects to certify with the FAA. It believes the aircraft’s VTOL capabilities, 1,000-pound payload, and low noise profile make it attractive to military operations as a safer, quieter alternative to helicopters.

First revealed in November, Midnight received airworthiness criteria from the FAA the following month. Capable of flying up to 100 sm (87 nm) at 130 knots, the aircraft is optimized for carrying a pilot and four passengers on 20 sm (17 nm) urban trips, with 12 minutes of charge time in between.

Midnight flies on six battery packs, each powering a pair of electric motors coupled to a small propeller. Six propellers are mounted on either side of the aircraft’s fixed wings, with the front propellers tilting forward to provide added thrust during cruise flight. The eVTOL uses avionics from Garmin and Safran and is up to 45dB quieter than a helicopter.

Archer believes Midnight’s short charging time, high speed (compared to a car), and focus on short, regional trips will make the company cost-competitive with rideshare services like Uber and Lyft. So far, it has committed to ferry passengers to and from Chicago O’Hare Airport (KORD) and Newark Liberty International Airport (KEWR) with United, which placed a $1 billion order for Midnight aircraft in 2021.

Currently, the firm is working toward a G-2 means of compliance for its FAA-issued airworthiness criteria. It expects to begin type certification testing with the agency in 2024 ahead of planned launches in 2025.

Among eVTOL manufacturers, Archer has a fairly tight relationship with the government. It’s one of a handful of air taxi companies in the FAA’s type certification process and just nabbed former Acting Administrator Billy Nolen for the Chief Safety Officer job. Nolen’s experience with the FAA side of certification should be a boon to the young company.

Archer is also backed by a manufacturing partnership with Stellantis, which just ramped up in June. Construction of the company’s Covington, Georgia, mass production plant is now well underway, and it expects the facility to open in mid-2024. Initially, the plant will produce 650 aircraft per year, but Archer expects that to one day rise to 2,300.

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Retired Major David Grusch, who served 14 years as an intelligence officer with the U.S. Air Force and National Geospacial Intelligence Agency, told Congress that government officials are concealing a “multidecade” program dedicated to recovering and reverse engineering UFOs. Among other bombastic claims, Grusch alleged the government is in possession of aircraft and “biologics” of “nonhuman” origin. Cue the X-Files theme.

“Welcome to the most exciting subcommittee in Congress this week,” said Representative Glenn Grothman (R-Wisc.), echoing the sentiments of many on the House floor.

Grusch’s Claims

Grusch, who went public with his account in June, said under oath that in 2019 he was asked by the head of a government task force investigating UAPs to identify highly classified programs relating to its mission.

At the time, Grusch was deployed to the National Reconnaissance Office and reported to the All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office (AARO), a Department of Defense program established last summer to expand the government’s UAP research. He was also a member of two Pentagon groups researching UAPs, including the DOD’s UAP Task Force, until 2021.

Grusch claims to have interviewed 40 witnesses over four years, describing the evidence seen by him and his wife as “very disturbing.”

“I was informed in the course of my official duties of a multidecade UAP crash retrieval and reverse engineering program to which I was denied access,” he said during his testimony.

The former intelligence officer claims he spoke to officials with direct knowledge of aircraft with “nonhuman” origins, adding that nonhuman “biologics” were found along with the recovered craft. He even purported to know the “exact locations” of UFOs in the government’s possession and said it has been aware of nonhuman activity since the 1930s.

Grusch further alleged the military misappropriated funds to shield the covert program from Congressional oversight. He added that “multiple colleagues” were injured by UAP activity and people within the U.S. government, and that he himself was the victim of retaliatory tactics.

The whistleblower would not share more detailed information and said he could not comment on certain subjects—such as whether the government has made contact with aliens—due to ongoing investigations. He did say, however, that he could expand on his testimony in a different setting, such as a sensitive compartmented information facility the government uses to review highly classified material.

The DOD vehemently denied all of Grusch’s allegations, stating the agency has not discovered “any verifiable information to substantiate claims that any programs regarding the possession or reverse engineering of extraterrestrial materials have existed in the past or exist currently.”

Grusch’s testimony appeared to spur bipartisan interest in greater transparency on UAPs. Both sides of the aisle asked him about the alleged cover-up and echoed his argument that the UAP reporting process is not sufficient.

“UAPs, whatever they may be, may pose a serious threat to our military or civilian aircraft. And that must be understood.” said Representative Robert Garcia of California, the top Democrat on the House Oversight subcommittee.

Grusch and the Congress members did not explicitly claim that the alleged spacecraft harbored aliens or “little green men.” But the former intelligence officer’s testimony raised eyebrows, particularly regarding national security.

Retired Navy Pilots Raise Further Concerns

The panel also heard from retired Commander David Fravor and former Navy pilot Ryan Graves, each of whom claims to have encountered UAP.

Fravor’s sighting, the now-famous “Tic Tac” video, took place in 2004 off the coast of California. He and another pilot spotted a smooth, oval object—similar to a Tic Tac breath mint—hovering over the water, but the aircraft then ascended rapidly to around 12,000 feet before accelerating into the distance. The object was detected on another pilot’s radar less than a minute later. But it had traveled 60 miles away.

Fravor claimed the government did not follow up on the incident for years—and that it didn’t accomplish much when it did.

“The technology that we faced was far superior than anything that we had,” Fravor said Wednesday. “I’m not a UFO fanatic. But what we saw with four sets of eyes—we have nothing close to it. It was incredible technology.”

Graves described his 2014 sightings as “dark gray or black cubes…inside of a clear sphere, where the apex or tips of the cubes were touching the inside of that sphere.” At the time, he was an F-18 pilot stationed in Virginia Beach, Virginia. He claimed a fellow pilot told him about an incident in which a similar object flew within 50 feet of two fighter jets.

The former pilot said there was no way to report his encounter and further claimed the incidents are “not rare or isolated.”

Both Fravor’s and Graves’ videos were released in 2020 as part of the Pentagon UFO videos, a selection of military recordings of UAP.

Grosch, Fravor, and Graves all testified that current UAP reporting systems are inadequate to investigate sightings and that a stigma exists among pilots and officials who make reports or demand transparency. 

Graves was particularly vocal, arguing that sightings are “grossly underreported,” estimating that 95 percent of them are not recorded. In his view, the stigma around UAP “silences” witnesses who fear “professional repercussions.”

In June, Graves co-founded Americans for Safe Aerospace, the first pilot-led advocacy group dedicated to UAP. The organization pushes for more robust reporting mechanisms and greater government transparency, serving as a hub for pilot whistleblowers.

“I urge us to put aside stigma and address the security and safety issue this topic represents,” Graves said. “If UAP are foreign drones, it is an urgent national security problem. If it is something else, it is an issue for science. In either case, unidentified objects are a concern for flight safety. The American people deserve to know what is happening in our skies. It is long overdue.”

So, What Are They?

Whether the UFOs the government has observed are from this planet or not, they figure to pose at least a hindrance to military, commercial, and general aviation pilots.

The DOD and other federal agencies have come up with natural explanations for the bulk of sightings: balloons, drones, airborne trash, and optical illusions, to name a few. Officials have even speculated that enemy aircraft engage in electronic warfare techniques such as radar spoofing, causing pilots to believe the objects are moving at impossible speeds or trajectories.

Some have suggested UAPs are foreign intelligence-gathering technology that lure U.S. aircraft into turning on their radar and other detectors, thus exposing their capabilities. 

Department of Defense officials in November told The New York Times that the majority of alleged UAP sightings point to foreign surveillance campaigns and could even be Air Force exercises. They said there was no evidence the craft are of extraterrestrial origin.

Still, many sightings remain unexplained. According to the Pentagon UFO Report, several have demonstrated capabilities such as extraordinary speed, the ability to submerge in water, unusual maneuverability, and flight without any evident propulsion system.

The government has stated that these anomalies could represent major advances in foreign technology, though some remain skeptical. Regardless, the objects present a potential safety threat for pilots and a national security issue for the U.S., particularly if only 5 percent of sightings are being reported as Graves alleged.

How Is the U.S. Addressing UAP Encounters?

The U.S. government has launched many programs to investigate UFO reports in the past century.

Perhaps the most famous is Project Blue Book, a classified task force active between 1954 and 1969, when it was terminated. The group collected, analyzed, and filed thousands of reports. But in the decades since, the public has largely been kept in the dark on UAP activity—until recently.

In 2020, the DOD established the Unidentified Aerial Phenomena Task Force (UAPTF), whose job was to standardize collection and reporting of UAP. In 2021, the UAPTF confirmed the authenticity of two leaked videos of UFO encounters—one appeared to show “pyramid-shaped objects” hovering over a Navy destroyer, and the other depicted a spherical object that flew over the ocean, stopped, and descended into the water.

In June of that year, the task force would release the highly publicized Pentagon UFO Report, which found that it was unable to identify 143 of 144 objects spotted between 2004 and 2021. Eighteen of those aircraft were capable of unusual flight patterns or characteristics that could represent “breakthrough” technology. 

The UAPTF said no evidence pointed to alien origins. But NASA Administrator Bill Nelson, among others, suggested the objects may not originate from Earth.

Last summer, the DOD established the AARO to investigate these sightings further. Since its founding, it has opened hundreds of investigations, about half of which have been resolved with mundane explanations, such as balloons. The rest, however, remain unexplained. The bulk of the reports come from military personnel, making them more credible than the average person on the street.

While it’s clear from these efforts that the government takes UAPs seriously, its investigations have borne little fruit and have not done much to prepare pilots for encounters. And if the AARO’s reporting mechanism is as flawed as the whistleblowers claim, the FAA’s isn’t much better. 

That’s because the agency does not have its own reporting system, instead deferring to the DOD.

“The FAA documents UAP sightings whenever a pilot reports one to an air traffic control facility,” the agency said in a statement shared with FLYING. “If the pilot report can be corroborated with supporting information such as radar data, it is shared with the UAPTP. Multiple government agencies have individual programs or processes to study and document UAP[s], however, the agencies also work collaboratively on the topic.”

The agency did not address FLYING’s inquiry regarding the establishment of new reporting procedures or guidelines for pilots.

But it did add that it is a part of NASA’s UAP independent study team, established in October. Over the subsequent nine months, the group of 16 researchers examined 800 unclassified incidents as of May and is expected to issue its preliminary report this month. The team held its first and only public meeting in May, sharing video of an unidentified spherical object.

So far, federal investigations have yielded nearly as many questions as answers. However, a bipartisan group of senators this month introduced an amendment to the annual defense spending bill that would require executive branch agencies to hand over UAP records to an independent review board.

Combined with the added pressure resulting from Wednesday’s hearing, it’s possible lawmakers’ efforts could force the Pentagon’s hand, opening the floodgates of UAP archives.

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That’s the mission of hybrid electric propulsion systems provider Ampaire, which last week announced the acquisition of electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft manufacturer Talyn Air in a bid to enter the defense, drone, and VTOL markets.

The companies chose not to disclose the terms of the deal. But Ampaire said it will inherit “substantially all of the assets of Talyn,” which include trade secrets, patents, and, perhaps most importantly, seven defense contracts for which it has sole-source follow-on rights.

 Talyn co-founders Jamie Gull and Evan Mucasey will stay on with Ampaire as advisers.

“[Hybrid electric propulsion is] a small industry of people who have very aligned visions for the future, who are trying to take this novel technology set and apply it in meaningful and exciting ways to do something really good for the world,” Kevin Noertker, co-founder and CEO of Ampaire, told FLYING. “That is a core alignment between the organizations and has been for the last four years as we’ve been building companies side by side.”

Provider of Choice

Launched seven years ago in a suburb of Los Angeles, Ampaire has enjoyed a relationship with Talyn since its founding in 2019, when the eVTOL maker was still in the Y Combinator startup accelerator. During that time, Noertker became friendly with Gull, and the two still talk frequently.

Having now flown 19,000 miles with its hybrid electric systems, Ampaire has no plans to build its own aircraft with Talyn’s technology. Rather, it plans to leverage the patents and contracts it acquired to add its systems to VTOL aircraft, in addition to the Cessna and de Havilland aircraft it already retrofits.

Noertker anticipates a large hybrid electric market developing for VTOL, an industry that already features several decarbonized players. His hope is for Ampaire to become the go-to propulsion systems firm for both conventional and emerging aircraft.

“This is about positioning Ampaire so that we are the provider of choice across all of those,” he said.

That wasn’t always the plan. According to Noertker, Ampaire at first had eyes only for conventional takeoff and landing models. That market, he thought, would drive more customers to the company.

“And frankly, I think that’s the strongest way to decarbonize the breadth of aviation, which is at the core of what we want to do,” he said.

However, as the years passed and VTOL innovation skyrocketed, Noertker now believes a handful of markets are ripe for VTOL operations. Though he anticipates passenger services will remain niche for the next few years, he sees applications for defense and cargo delivery in the near term.

“I definitely think eVTOL is there and will endure as a meaningful segment to the industry, which is partially why we’re so excited about this opportunity here,” Noertker said.

Since VTOL is still a niche market, Ampaire’s near-term focus will continue to be conventional aircraft. But the company plans to begin tapping into the VTOL market by leveraging Talyn’s assets in more ways than one.

Patents Present New Pathways

Ampaire received a heap of intellectual property in the deal, including trade secrets, engineering strategies, and other internal data. But the most intriguing acquisition is that of Talyn’s seven patents.

Noertker wouldn’t get into specifics, but the patents cover two main categories: the staged architecture of Talyn’s eVTOL and in-air recharging.

Unique among eVTOL manufacturers, Talyn’s design is akin to Virgin Galactic’s space tourism service, which uses a lift vehicle to ferry a second vehicle containing passengers to a launch point 45,000 feet off the ground. 

Talyn doesn’t quite reach those heights. But the architecture is similar: A wheeled lift vehicle launches vertically, bringing a second cruise vehicle into the sky with it. In the air, the two separate, and the cruise vehicle flies on its own. Then, while still airborne, it can pair up with another lift vehicle, attach itself autonomously, and hover back to the ground.

According to Noertker, Ampaire already has several customers interested in Talyn’s lift architecture, which could one day be used as a launch platform for other eVTOL aircraft. That is not yet the company’s focus, but the lift vehicle adds another potential layer of infrastructure for electric aviation.

Similarly, Noertker views in-air charging as a “frontier opportunity.” He doesn’t expect that feature to appear in the firm’s commercially available Eco Caravan. Before that happens, Ampaire needs to electrify more aircraft.

But the company may soon begin exploring the ability to install charging systems on board aircraft. Like Talyn’s launch platform, Noertker believes in-air charging could be part of the “next generation of functionality” in aviation, another piece of infrastructure for Ampaire to pursue as the industry decarbonizes.

A Growing Collection of Contracts

Since its founding, much of Talyn’s work has come in the form of defense contracts, and Ampaire will inherit seven of them.

Among others, Talyn contracted with the Naval Air Systems Command, the U.S. Air Force’s 621st Contingency Response Wing, and AFWERX, demonstrating launch, release, and close formation flight with a 12-foot subscale prototype of its two-segment eVTOL.

But per Noertker, one of Ampaire’s first tasks following the deal will be applying its hybrid electric systems to Talyn’s aircraft as part of a program with NASA. 

Another key acquisition will be the Tactical Funding Increase (TACFI) contract Talyn had with AFWERX’s Agility Prime, the vertical lift division of the Air Force’s innovation arm. Talyn has already built an airframe for those trials and is adding onboard propulsion systems to initiate ground testing. Ampaire will take over when flight testing begins.

Despite his technology trading hands, Talyn CEO Gull is optimistic about the future of the company’s design. Gull continues to see interesting applications for the eVTOL, particularly in the defense space, and he believes Ampaire will carry the torch.

“Evan [Mucasey] and I started the company four years ago and worked really hard in getting this to where it was, getting U.S. government contracts, getting aircraft up flying at some scale, and building this big airframe,” Gull told FLYING. “We’re both stoked to see this continue on with Ampaire.”

Since Ampaire will continue to prioritize conventional aircraft, it may take awhile for Gull to see his aspirations come to fruition. But the deal clearly signals the company’s ambition to expand into markets such as VTOL, which may spend the next decade in infancy.

“What we’re doing is we’re repowering aviation,” Noertker said. “All of it—both the stuff that exists and the stuff that does not yet exist.”

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